(a) Bio-bot design is inspired by biological design in the body. (b) Bio-bot skeletons and muscle bioactuator injection molds are designed using computer-aided design (CAD) software (Steps 1 and 2), (c) tested using finite element analysis (FEA) software (Steps 20–25), and (d) manufactured via stereolithographic 3D printing (Steps 3–10). (e) Muscle rings are tissue-engineered and coupled to bio-bot skeletons (Steps 11–16), and assessed via (f) immunohistochemical staining (Step 26) and (g) externally stimulated force production (Step 19). Each step of the design process (a–g) is iterative, and feedback from each step is used to improve the functionality of the bio-bot with each iteration. Scale bars, 2 mm (e); 500 μm (f). a,c,f adapted with permission from ref...
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